From Passenger to Driver: EdTech, Agency, and the Reconfiguration of Learning Control

 

Introduction

The rapid expansion of educational technology (EdTech) has prompted a fundamental reconsideration of the learner’s role in contemporary educational settings. A prevailing narrative frames EdTech as an enabler of learner agency, transforming individuals from passive recipients of knowledge into active drivers of their own educational trajectories. This transformation is often contrasted with traditional instructional models, in which learners are conceptualised as “passengers” who progress through predetermined curricula with limited control over pace, content, or direction. Nevertheless, although EdTech provides structural and pedagogical affordances that can support learner autonomy, the degree to which it genuinely enables this transition depends on a complex interplay among technological design, pedagogical intent, and learner capability.

This section employs an interpretivist perspective to examine how EdTech reconfigures the locus of control in learning. Rather than presuming a deterministic relationship between technology and empowerment, the analysis investigates how learners experience and interpret agency within digitally mediated environments. Drawing on contemporary literature (2020–2025), the discussion critically examines both the enabling and constraining dimensions of EdTech, contending that the shift from passenger to driver is neither automatic nor universal, but is instead socially and contextually constructed.

Conceptualising the “Driver” Versus “Passenger” in Learning

The metaphor of the learner as either a “driver” or a “passenger” provides a useful heuristic for understanding shifts in educational control. In traditional, teacher-centred models, learning is typically linear, standardised, and externally regulated (Biesta, 2022). Knowledge is transmitted from educator to learner, with limited opportunity for deviation or personalisation. Within this paradigm, learners are positioned as passengers—expected to absorb content, comply with instructional pacing, and demonstrate understanding through predefined assessment structures.

In contrast, EdTech-mediated environments introduce the possibility of nonlinear, adaptive, and self-directed learning pathways. In these contexts, learners can theoretically determine the trajectory of their learning by selecting resources, pacing their engagement, and tailoring content to their individual needs (Holmes et al., 2022). This approach aligns with the principles of learner-centred education and constructivist theory, which emphasise active knowledge construction and personal meaning-making.

However, the distinction between driver and passenger is not binary; rather, it exists along a continuum shaped by varying degrees of autonomy, guidance, and system control. Selwyn (2021) contends that digital education frequently presents an “illusion of autonomy,” in which learners appear to have choice but are subtly guided by platform architectures, algorithms, and institutional expectations. Therefore, the notion of being a “driver” requires critical examination rather than uncritical acceptance.

Theoretical Foundations: Constructivism and Self-Regulated Learning

The proposition that EdTech can enable learners to become drivers of their own learning is grounded in key theoretical frameworks, particularly constructivism and self-regulated learning (SRL).

Constructivist approaches posit that learners actively construct knowledge through interaction with their environment, rather than passively receiving information (Vygotsky, 1978; recontextualised in contemporary digital settings by Kimmons & Rosenberg, 2022). EdTech tools, such as interactive simulations, collaborative platforms, and multimedia resources, provide rich environments for exploration and meaning-making. These affordances support deeper engagement and personalised learning trajectories, reinforcing the potential for learner agency.

Complementing this, SRL theory emphasises the importance of learners’ ability to set goals, monitor progress, and adapt strategies (Zimmerman, 2002; Panadero, 2021). Digital platforms often include features that support these processes, such as dashboards, progress tracking, and immediate feedback mechanisms. In theory, such tools scaffold learners’ transition into more autonomous roles, equipping them with the metacognitive skills necessary to navigate complex learning environments.

However, the development of SRL is not inherent to the use of technology. In the absence of explicit pedagogical support, learners may struggle to manage their learning effectively, resulting in superficial engagement or cognitive overload (Broadbent & Poon, 2023). Therefore, while EdTech can facilitate agency, it does not inherently produce it.

Affordances of EdTech for Learner Agency

EdTech enables learner-driven education through several key affordances: access, personalisation, multimodality, and feedback.

On-demand access represents a significant transformation. Learners can engage with content at any time and from any location, thereby disrupting the temporal and spatial constraints of traditional education (Bond et al., 2020). This flexibility enables individuals to align learning with their schedules, interests, and needs, fostering a sense of ownership.

Personalisation further enhances this sense of control. AI-driven systems can adapt content difficulty, recommend resources, and adjust learning pathways based on user behaviour (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2023). Such adaptive learning environments position learners as active participants in shaping their educational experiences, rather than passive recipients of standardised instruction.

Multimodal engagement supports diverse learning preferences and needs, particularly for neurodiverse learners. Video, audio, text, and interactive elements provide multiple entry points into content, enabling learners to choose modalities that align with their cognitive strengths (Dalton et al., 2022). This inclusivity reinforces the idea of learner agency as both a cognitive and experiential phenomenon.

Feedback loops play a crucial role in sustaining learner autonomy. Immediate, data-driven feedback allows learners to identify gaps in understanding and adjust their strategies in real time (Hattie & Timperley, 2021). This reduces reliance on teacher intervention and supports continuous self-improvement.

Collectively, these affordances establish conditions that allow learners to assume greater control over their learning. However, the existence of these features does not guarantee their effective use or meaningful impact.

Constraints and the Illusion of Agency

Despite its potential, EdTech also introduces constraints that complicate the narrative of learner empowerment. One significant concern is the increasing influence of algorithmic governance within digital learning environments. Many platforms are designed to optimise engagement, retention, and completion rates, often through behaviourist mechanisms such as rewards, streaks, and nudges (Williamson & Eynon, 2020).

These features can subtly shape learner behaviour, guiding decisions in ways that may not align with genuine autonomy. For example, recommendation systems may prioritise certain content based on popularity or institutional goals, thereby limiting exposure to alternative perspectives. In these instances, learners may perceive themselves as drivers while actually following predetermined routes.

This tension reflects a broader shift towards the datafication of education, where learner activity is continuously tracked, analysed, and used to inform system design (Selwyn, 2021). While data can support personalisation, it also raises questions about surveillance, privacy, and the commodification of learning.

Another constraint is cognitive overload. The abundance of resources and choices available in digital environments can overwhelm learners, particularly those with underdeveloped metacognitive skills (Kirschner & Hendrick, 2020). Without clear guidance, learners may struggle to prioritise tasks, evaluate sources, or maintain focus, leading to fragmented learning experiences.

Additionally, issues of digital inequality persist. Access to reliable technology, connectivity, and digital literacy varies significantly across contexts (UNESCO, 2023). For some learners, the promise of agency remains unattainable due to structural barriers, reinforcing existing educational inequities.

The Role of Educators: Designing for Agency

The extent to which EdTech enables learners to become drivers of their own learning is significantly influenced by pedagogical design. Educators play a critical role in mediating the relationship between technology and agency.

Rather than relinquishing control entirely, effective educators adopt a facilitative role by scaffolding learners’ development of autonomy while providing structure and support (Laurillard, 2022). This approach includes explicitly teaching metacognitive strategies, modelling self-regulated learning behaviours, and creating opportunities for reflection.

Designing for agency also requires the intentional use of technology. Not all EdTech tools are inherently empowering; their impact depends on how they are integrated into learning environments. For instance, a platform that merely digitises traditional lectures may reinforce passive learning, whereas one that encourages collaboration, inquiry, and creativity can support active engagement.

Furthermore, educators must critically evaluate the underlying assumptions and values embedded within EdTech systems. This includes questioning whose interests are prioritised, how data is used, and what forms of learning are incentivised. Such critical engagement is essential for ensuring that technology serves pedagogical goals rather than dictating them.

Learner Experience and Interpretivist Insights

From an interpretivist perspective, the transition from passenger to driver is not solely a structural shift but also a lived experience shaped by individual perceptions and contexts. Learners interpret and negotiate their roles within digital environments in diverse ways, influenced by prior experiences, cultural expectations, and personal identities.

For some learners, EdTech fosters a sense of empowerment by enabling exploration, creativity, and self-expression. These individuals may experience increased motivation, confidence, and ownership of their learning. Conversely, the same environments may evoke anxiety, uncertainty, or disengagement for others. The expectation to self-direct can be overwhelming, particularly when adequate support is lacking.

Neurodiverse learners, in particular, may experience EdTech in nuanced ways. While multimodal and flexible learning environments can support diverse cognitive needs, they can also introduce challenges related to attention, organisation, and sensory overload (Graham et al., 2024). Understanding these varied experiences is crucial for developing inclusive and equitable educational practices.

Interpretivist research underscores the importance of capturing these subjective experiences, moving beyond generalised claims regarding EdTech’s impact. By foregrounding learner perspectives, researchers can gain deeper insights into how agency is constructed, negotiated, and at times constrained within digital learning environments.

Discussion: Conditional Agency in EdTech

The analysis presented in this section indicates that EdTech does not inherently transform learners into drivers of their own learning. Rather, it establishes the conditions under which such a transformation may occur, contingent upon a range of factors.

Agency in EdTech is conditional—dependent on:

• the design of technological systems,
• the pedagogical approaches employed by educators,
• the metacognitive capabilities of learners,
• and the broader sociotechnical context.

This perspective challenges deterministic narratives that position technology as a solution to educational challenges. Instead, it underscores the need for critical, context-sensitive approaches that acknowledge both the opportunities and limitations of EdTech.

Conclusion

EdTech has the potential to reconfigure the learner’s role from passenger to driver, enabling greater autonomy, flexibility, and personalisation. However, this shift is neither automatic nor assured. Although digital tools provide the affordances necessary for learner agency, their impact is mediated by pedagogical design, learner capability, and systemic constraints.

From an interpretivist standpoint, the experience of being a “driver” in learning is constructed through complex interactions between individuals and their environments. Recognising this complexity is essential for developing educational practices that authentically empower learners rather than merely simulating autonomy.

Ultimately, the central question is not whether EdTech can make learners drivers of their own learning, but under what conditions this occurs. Addressing this issue requires ongoing critical inquiry, informed by both theoretical insight and empirical evidence.

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